Ottoman Economy Under Abdülhamid II: Debt, Rail and Banks
How the Ottoman state paid its way, 1876 to 1909: the 1881 debt deal, a creditors’ tax office, a tobacco monopoly and railways built on guarantees.
The Ottoman Tughra: Five Parts of a Sultan’s Monogram
What a tughra is, its five named parts shown on a real museum sheet, and how its shape grew from Orhan Gazi in 1324 to the 1900s.
