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Sultan Mahmud II is widely recognized as one of the most influential reformist sultans of the Ottoman Empire. Often compared to Peter the Great of Russia, his reign (1808–1839) was a turning point that dragged the empire into the modern era, witnessing sweeping decisions that forever changed its structure.
While his era saw significant modernization, it was also marked by territorial losses, including Greece and Algeria, and intense internal conflicts like the rebellion of the Egyptian governor, Muhammad Ali Pasha. Yet, his legacy as a modernizer remains his defining feature.
The Lineage and Family of Sultan Mahmud II
Sultan Mahmud II was born into the illustrious Ottoman dynasty. His lineage traces back to the very founders of the empire. His genealogical line is recorded as:
Sultan Mahmud II, son of Abdülhamid I, son of Ahmed III, son of Mehmed IV, son of Ibrahim I, son of Ahmed I, son of Mehmed III, son of Murad III, son of Selim II, son of Suleiman the Magnificent, son of Selim I, son of Bayezid II, son of Mehmed the Conqueror (Fatih), son of Murad II, son of Mehmed I, son of Bayezid I, son of Murad I, son of Orhan Gazi, son of Osman Gazi, son of Ertuğrul Gazi.
The Ottoman harem was a complex institution. Historical records indicate that Sultan Mahmud II had at least 19 consorts (known as Kadıns and Ikbals). Some of the notable names include:
- Dilseza Kadın
- Alicenab Kadın
- Kamerfer Kadın
- Nevfidan Kadın
- Hoşyar Kadın
- Aşubcan Kadın
- Mislinayab Kadın
- Nurtab Kadın
- Bezmiâlem Sultan (Mother of Sultan Abdülmecid I)
- Ebrureftar Kadın
- Pervizifelek Kadın
- Hüsnümelek Hanım
- Pertevniyal Sultan (Mother of Sultan Abdülaziz)
- Tiryal Hanım
- Zernigar Hanım
- Lebrizifelek Hanım
The Early Life of Sultan Mahmud II
Prince Mahmud was born on July 20, 1785, during the holy month of Ramadan, to Sultan Abdülhamid I and his wife Nakşidil Sultan. His path to the throne was anything but smooth.
Following the death of his father, the empire fell into chaos. His cousin, the reformist Sultan Selim III, was deposed, and Mahmud’s half-brother, Mustafa IV, took the throne. To secure his rule, Mustafa IV ordered the execution of all other male heirs, specifically Selim III and Mahmud, to ensure he was the only living candidate for the sultanate.
A dramatic rebellion ensued, led by Alemdar Mustafa Pasha, who sought to restore the reformers. While the rebels successfully breached the palace, they were too late to save Selim III, who was assassinated. Prince Mahmud, however, narrowly escaped death by hiding on the roof of the palace (some accounts say a furnace room). He emerged with the help of the rebels to depose Mustafa IV and ascend the throne.
The Reign of Sultan Mahmud II
The Janissary Rebellion
Sultan Mahmud II ascended to the throne in 1808 at the young age of 23. He immediately faced the same threat that had killed his cousin: the Janissaries. These elite troops had become a corrupt “state within a state,” opposing any modernization.
Early in his reign, a massive Janissary revolt broke out in protest against military reforms. The rebels set fire to the Sublime Porte (government building) and killed the Grand Vizier, Mustafa Bayraktar. They even demanded the restoration of the deposed Mustafa IV. To ensure Mustafa could never be used against him again, Mahmud II made the difficult decision to execute his brother. With the capital in flames, he was forced to temporarily shelf his reform plans to survive.
Eliminating the Janissaries (The Auspicious Incident)
By 1826, Mahmud II was ready. He announced the formation of a modern army drilled in the European style. As expected, the Janissaries rebelled, overturning their soup cauldrons, a traditional sign of mutiny, and marching through the streets of Istanbul.
This time, the Sultan was prepared. He unfurled the Sacred Standard of the Prophet Muhammad to rally the public and the remaining loyal artillery units against the rebels. The people, tired of Janissary lawlessness, supported their Sultan.
The loyalist forces and artillery cornered the Janissaries in their barracks. The Sultan ordered the artillery to fire, destroying the barracks. Approximately 4,000 rebels were killed in the initial assault. In the ensuing cleanup, known as the “Auspicious Incident,” the corps was completely disbanded. Historical estimates suggest the total death toll, including subsequent executions across the empire, ranged from 6,000 to 20,000. The Janissaries were wiped from history.
Military Reforms
With the major obstacle removed, Sultan Mahmud II launched a wave of military reforms to modernize the empire’s defense:
- New Army: Established the Asakir-i Mansure-i Muhammediye (Victorious Soldiers of Muhammad) to replace the Janissaries.
- Conscription: Introduced a compulsory recruitment system to ensure a steady supply of troops.
- Foreign Training: Recruited officers from Prussia (Germany) to train the troops and sent Ottoman officers abroad for education.
- Naval Academy: Reopened the Naval School and built new barracks for the Navy.
- The Mahmudiye Ship: Commissioned the Mahmudiye in 1829. For many years, it was the largest sailing warship in the world. This massive three-deck ship measured over 76 meters in length, carried 128 cannons, and was manned by a crew of approximately 1,280 sailors.
- Steam Power: Introduced the first steam-powered ships to the Ottoman Navy, marking a technological leap for the fleet. For a modern connection to Istanbul’s waters, check out our guide on luxury yacht rentals in Istanbul.
Educational Reforms
Sultan Mahmud II understood that military power relied on an educated society. He established elementary schools (Rüştiye) to teach the Quran, Arabic basics, and Turkish literacy. He also founded secondary schools focused on mathematics, geography, and history to prepare civil servants.
Crucially, he improved the translation bureau and began sending educational missions to European capitals like Paris and London. Students were accompanied by ambassadors who reported on their progress, ensuring they brought back modern arts and sciences to Istanbul.
Clarification on the Mahmudiyah Library: While the famous Mahmudiyah Library in Medina was founded by his predecessor, Sultan Mahmud I, Mahmud II was a staunch supporter of such institutions. Interestingly, the manuscripts from this library were later famously transported to Istanbul during World War I for safekeeping and are now housed in the Topkapi Palace Museum.
Social Reforms
The visual landscape of the Ottoman Empire changed dramatically under his rule. In a bold move to integrate with the modern world, the Sultan mandated a change in dress for government officials.
He replaced the traditional turban and robes with European-style trousers, frock coats, and the fez. While initially controversial, the fez became a symbol of Ottoman modernity for the next century. This shift wasn’t just about fashion; it was about signaling to the world that the Ottoman Empire was an equal player in global politics. You can still see traces of this cultural depth in traditional crafts, such as the Anatolian rugs that decorated the floors of these modernized palaces.
The Ottoman-Saudi War
The early 19th century saw a challenge to Ottoman authority in the Hijaz (modern-day Saudi Arabia). The First Saudi State, led by Abdullah bin Saud, had taken control of the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. For the Ottoman Caliphate, losing stewardship of these sites was unacceptable.
Sultan Mahmud II ordered Muhammad Ali Pasha, the powerful governor of Egypt, to retake the region. The Egyptian-Ottoman army waged a grueling campaign, eventually recapturing the holy cities. The war concluded with the siege of Diriyah, the Saudi capital. Abdullah bin Saud surrendered and was sent to Istanbul, where he was executed for his rebellion against the Caliphate. This victory briefly restored Ottoman prestige in the Islamic world. For more on the empire’s reach in the region, read about Ottoman Jerusalem.
Greek Independence
The Greek War of Independence broke out in 1821, becoming one of the defining crises of Mahmud II’s reign. Initially, the Sultan again turned to Muhammad Ali Pasha of Egypt for help. The Egyptian governor sent his son, Ibrahim Pasha, with a modern army and fleet consisting of 17,000 soldiers.
The Ottoman-Egyptian alliance was militarily successful on land, suppressing much of the revolt. However, public opinion in Europe shifted heavily in favor of the Greeks. Great Britain, France, and Russia formed a powerful alliance to intervene.
In 1827, the allied European fleets intercepted the Ottoman-Egyptian navy at the Battle of Navarino. In a crushing defeat, the Ottoman fleet was destroyed. Following a subsequent land war with Russia, the Ottoman Empire was forced to recognize Greek independence in the Treaty of Adrianople (1829).
Occupation of Algeria
The destruction of the Ottoman fleet at Navarino had consequences beyond Greece. Sensing Ottoman naval weakness, France invaded Algiers in 1830. With his navy in ruins and his armies tied down elsewhere, Sultan Mahmud II was unable to send reinforcements. This marked the beginning of French colonial rule in Algeria and the loss of Ottoman influence in the Maghreb.
Egyptian, Ottoman War
Ironically, the Sultan’s greatest threat came from his own subordinate. Muhammad Ali Pasha, feeling unrewarded for his help in Greece and Saudi Arabia, turned against Istanbul. He aimed to establish his own dynasty, potentially replacing the House of Osman.
Egyptian forces swept through the Levant and advanced deep into Anatolia, reaching as far as Kütahya and Konya (near the famous valleys of Cappadocia). The Ottoman army was defeated, and the road to Istanbul lay open.
Desperate, Sultan Mahmud II made a historic pivot by asking his old enemy, Russia, for help. This led to European intervention to maintain the balance of power. Although a peace was brokered, war flared up again in 1839 at the Battle of Nizip, where Ottoman forces suffered another defeat shortly before the Sultan’s death.
Legacy and Visiting in 2025
Sultan Mahmud II passed away from tuberculosis on July 1, 1839, at the home of his sister, Esma Sultan, in Çamlıca. He was succeeded by his son, Sultan Abdülmecid I, who would continue his father’s reformist legacy with the Tanzimat era.
Today, you can connect with his history in Istanbul:
- Tomb of Mahmud II: Located on Divanyolu Street in Çemberlitaş, his mausoleum is a grand example of Ottoman empire style. It is also the final resting place of Sultans Abdülaziz and Abdülhamid II. As of 2025, entrance to the tomb is free for visitors.
- Topkapi Palace: To see where he ruled and lived, you can visit the Topkapi Palace Museum. The 2025 combined entry fee for foreign visitors is 2,400 TL (approximately €65), which grants access to the palace and the Harem section.
